Botanical Name
Plant Family: Ericaceae (1,2). Previously in the Monotropaceae family (3).
The genus name, Monotropa, means “one turn” and refers to the curve at the top of the stem and the species name, uniflora, means “one flowered” referring to the single flower at the top of the flower stalk (4).
Botanical Synonyms
Monotropa brittonii (5). It is distinguished from Monotropa uniflora by its distinct reddish, salmon colour (6).
Monotropa hypopithys(Pinesap): Plants have a pinkish colour and several to many flowers in a terminal cluster (5,7)
Common Names
Ghost pipe , Indian Pipe, Ice-plant, Bird's nest, Fit-plant, Ova-ova, Pipe-plant (2,8), Wolf’s Urine, Corpse Plant (9), Convulsion Root, Fits (10).
The name Indian Pipe was given to the plant because of the single stemmed white flower that resembles the shape of a pipe (10). The Straits-Salish and Nlaka’pamux of British Columbia referred to the plant as wolf’s urine because it is said to grow wherever wolves urinate. It has also been referred to as Ice plant because it melts like ice when rubbed between one’s hands (9). The name Bird’s Nest refers to the messy matted root system that resembles a bird’s nest. It was also known as Convulsion Root because of its effectiveness in resolving fits, convulsions, epilepsy, and other spasmodic conditions (10).
Plant Description
Ghost pipe is a perennial herb that grows to approximately 10-20cm tall (9). The plant has a fibrous compact root matted in masses that intertwine with the mycelial networks for the forest floor (2,11).
Short white waxy stems arise from the earth in clusters of unbranched stems. The alternate white, semi-transparent scale-like leaves are linear to oval shaped and up to 1cm long (9). The leaves are scale-like with black flecks on the flower stalk (12,13). The white colour of the plant is due to its lack of chlorophyll and photosynthetic process (14). If any part of the plant is touched, it turns black (15).
There is a single terminal flower (1,2,9). The flower hangs pointing to the ground like a bell at first, but rises upwards as it fruits. The calyx has two to four deciduous bracts, while the corolla has five distinct fleshy petals (2). Ghost pipe first appears above ground between early Summer and Autumn, typically after rainfall and when the weather is warm (4). The flowers appear from June to September (2,13). The flowers bloom for approximately a week, after which they shrivel up and turn black (16).
The fruit is formed in an erect globe-shaped capsule that is 5-7mm long. It contains many seeds that split open when mature (5,9). It uses bombus pollinators and reproduces through dust seed production (14,16).
Ghost Pipe is said to be tasteless when eaten raw, but has a slight asparagus-like flavour when cooked (9). Fresh plants have been reported of having the odor of ammonia in them, whereas the tincture is reported as having a slight aroma and flavour of chocolate (17). However, some reports suggest that the flowers have a subtle sweet scent in the wild (18).
Botanical Drawing
Figure 1 Botanical Drawing by Jennifer Kavanagh
Habitat, Distribution, and Ecology
Ghost Pipe grows in dense, shaded temperate forests in Asia, North America and parts of northern South America (1,2,7,14). It is the only native species of the genus Monotropa in Canada (15) and prefers to grow in dense, moist forests at low elevations across all provinces of Canada (9). It thrives in a low-PH soil with decaying leaves and near the base of trees with little to no foot traffic (2,19,20). It can grow in complete shade as it does not require sunlight for a photosynthesis process (3).
The roots of the plant intertwine with the mycelial networks of the forest floor drawing off the nutrients of both trees and fungi (11). In 2005, Martin Bidartondo collected DNA evidence to suggest that an ancestral plant mutated and evolved into what is now known as Ghost Pipe and other species of Monotropa. This evolution has identified Monotropa uniflora as a “cheater” plant which means it is a mutation that decreases its reproductive ability, but that it benefits from other plants that have not mutated. The ancestral plants of Ghost Pipe could not reproduce seeds on their own, so they became dependent on the carbohydrates of the mycorrhizae of the surrounding green plants. This relationship is likely why Ghost Pipe is considered a rare plant (21).
Ghost Pipe does not appear to be consumed by any animals in the wild, however bumble bees are known to pollinate its flowers (17).
Parts Used
Whole plant (8,11), root (2,21).
The root was traditionally used, however concerns over the rarity of the plant in modern times has led most modern herbalists to work with the whole plant rather than the root.
Sustainability and Cultivation
Ghost Pipe is considered a rare perennial plant, but it is not classified as endangered (1,21,22). Cultivation has yet to be uncovered and thus it currently only exists in the wild (14). Once the seed has ripened, it is released through slits that open from the tip to the base of the capsule (13).
Ghost Pipe is a mycoheterotroph; meaning it requires fixed carbon from photosynthetic plants through a mycorrhizal network in order to grow (1,4,15,23). The growth of ghost pipe is dependent upon the white mushroom, Russula brevipes from which it receives the necessary carbon to grow. These mushrooms grow in mycorrhizal relationship with Fir, Spruce, Hemlock, and Douglas-Fir trees (14,23). Ghost pipe is often described as a parasite because it takes from the surrounding plants without providing anything back (14). Due to this relationship, there are no known reports of cultivating Ghost Pipe.
Propagation is considered extremely difficult. It would require the seed to be sown close to a host plant by planting it under leaves near a mature beech or coniferous tree or by planting in a cold frame along with a host plant. If the seed germinated, it would then need to be transplanted outdoors along with its host plant near a mature tree (18).
Disturbances such as agriculture or logging may inhibit populations of Monotropa uniflora that are dependent upon the carbon of photosynthetic plants in an area (24). Over harvesting of ghost pipe is also a concern due to its delicate reproductive nature (22). Efforts are being taken to conserve the forests where Ghost Pipe is located due to its delicate mycoheterotrophic requirements.
Ghost Pipe is often considered an alternative herb to opium, which is a narcotic derived from the unripe seedpods of Papaver somniferum. The powered root was used as an opium alternative to relieve pain, restlessness, and irritability (2). In the event of sore muscles a mullein root tincture may be used in place of a ghost pipe tincture (7)
Harvesting, Collection, and Preparation
Roots
The root is harvested in September and October, dried and pulverized into a powder or used in a tea (2,25). Historically, juice from the root of ghost pipe was steeped in water to manage pain brought on by colds (9,26). Harvesting of the roots is not recommended by most modern herbalists due to the plants delicate reproductive nature and due to the fact that the aerial parts provide similar effects to the roots in many cases (11).
Preparations: Powdered root(2), tea (9,25,26).
Whole Herb
While some modern herbalists suggest working with the root only, similar effects have also been identified with working with the whole plant. Given the difficulty in propagating the plant, harvesting only aerial parts and leaving the roots in tact allows a plant to continue to grow in an area (11). Aerial parts should be harvested when the flower is pointing to the ground. It is too late if the flowers are facing upwards or have turned black (4,7). It is also recommended to harvest only a few plants from each colony (4). Only 3 or 4 flowers and stems are needed to prepare a powerful tincture (7). Given that any gentle touch to the plant can cause bruising, it is recommended to tincture the fresh plant directly in the field with 100 proof alcohol (4). When extracted into alcohol the white plant turns the extract purple (14).
A juice may also be prepared from the plant and applied topically to obstinate ophthalmic inflammation and ulcers, and injected for gonorrhoea, inflammation, and ulceration of the bladder (27). An infusion of the whole plant in cold water was applied topically to sore eyes (28).
The Cherokee would create a poultice by mashing up the plant and applying it topically to heal warts and bunions (28).
A smoke or “smudge” of the plant was helped to revive individuals after fainting (3).
Preparations: tea (made fresh or dried), cold infusion, poultice, juice (topical), tincture (of the fresh flowers and stem with 100 proof alcohol), smoke (4,7,11).
Flowers
The Cree Indians chewed on the flowers to help relieve toothaches (29).
Constituents
Given the limited clinical research completed on ghost pipe, we are still learning about its active constituents. It is believed that it may contain a neurotoxin, but that is based on one report from 1889 and has not been confirmed by any further research (20). These are the constituents that are believed to be present in Ghost Pipe but further analysis is required to confirm if these are true.
Alkaloids: piperidine, isopiperidine (22,25)
Glycosides(9): monoglycosides and digylcosides (30).
Phenolic Acids: salicylic acid(4).
Fatty Acids (derived from the oil): palmitic acid, linolenic acid, linoleic acid, hexadeconic acid (31).
The active compounds found in Ghost Pipe include several alkaloids such as piperidine and isopiperidine. The alkaloids found in ghost pipe interact with neurotransmitter receptors in the central nervous system, which may lead to the analgesic and sedative effects (22).
Pharmacology and Research Studies
Clinical research on Ghost Pipe is limited, most information about Ghost Pipe is anecdotal in nature (20,22). The common consensus among herbalists and homeopaths is that Ghost Pipe is beneficial for pain, anxiety, and insomnia but little clinical research has been completed to support this (20). Below, the limited clinical research is summarized, and the anecdotal case studies have been summarized in the Therapeutic Uses and Indications section of this paper.
Breast Cancer Cells
Many of the plants within the Ericaceae family produce a neurotoxin known as grayanotoxin. Some theorize that it could be this grayanotoxin that is responsible for the beneficial effects anecdotally reported by others. One study looked at whether a 90% alcohol extraction of the fresh aerial parts of Monotropa uniflora had an effect on MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Through the use of Raman spectroscopy, Monotropa uniflora extract and ethanol were compared to a null group. The results showed that the extract had some effect on MCF-7 cells, suggesting there is some active ingredient affecting the cells beyond the alcohol. However, the identity of the active ingredient has yet to be identified (20).
Limited Anti-Viral Properties
Monotropa uniflora was included in a study of local plants used by Indigenous Peoples of British Columbia to evaluate their anti-viral properties. A methanol extract was prepared of each plant and they were examined for their effect in vitro on the replication of seven viruses including bovine coronavirus, bovine herpesvirus type 1, bovine parainfluenza virus type 3, bovine rotavirus, bovine respiratory syncytial virus, vaccinia virus, and vesicular stomatitis virus. Monotropa uniflora was not found to have any significant anti-viral effects on the viruses examined (32)
Antioxidant and Antibacterial
A study explored whether an aqueous extract of the related Monotropa hypopitys was useful in detecting mercury and acting as a microbial and antioxidant agent against several bacterial strains. An aqueous extract of Monotropa hypopitys was mixed with salts, silver nitrate, nickel chloride, and copper sulphate using incubation, stirring, heat, and sunlight. The mixture was then dried and used to test its scavenging abilities against the bacterial strains Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus (Gram-positive), and Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Gram-negative), and Candida albicans, Candida krusei, Aspergillus flavus, and Trichophyton mentagrophyte. The results showed that the nanoparticles were most effective against gram positive, rather than gram negative strains of bacteria. This shows the potential use of Monotropa as a menstruum with nanoparticles to provide antibacterial and antioxidant support. Further research is warranted to explore how this may apply with Monotropa uniflora and inside the human body (33).
Toxicity
It is generally considered safe when used in low doses(22), but it not recommended during pregnancy or when breastfeeding (7). Sensitivities or overuse may lead to nausea, gastrointestinal upset, dizziness, dry mouth, headaches, and allergic reactions. High doses of tincture may lead to respiratory depression (22). Doses of 15ml or more may bring deep sleep and bizarre erotic dreams (17). It is recommended to start with a low dose and gradually increase to monitor adverse affects (22) and not recommended for daily doses past one month (4). Some also consider Ghost Pipe to be a potential hallucinogen although further research is required to confirm this (29).
Ghost Pipe is not a recommended edible. While there are some reports of people eating it (9), there are also reports of individuals feeling ill or strange afterwards. However, there are no known reports of hospitalization after consuming ghost pipe (7).
The presence of glycosides may indicate that the plant is toxic (9), and it is theorized that it may contain andromedotoxin (34), however its toxicity is yet to be confirmed. Due to Ghost Pipe’s parasitic relationship with mycelium, there is also the potential that it may sequester heavy metals from the mycelium. An analysis of Monotropa uniflora extract testing for the presence of lead found 1,800ppb of lead, which is 120 times the allowable amount in drinking water. However further studies are required to confirm if this is true (20).
Herbal Actions
Root:
· Analgesic (35)
· Antispasmodic (2,8,25)
· Diaphoretic (2)
· Nervine (2,25,36)
· Sedative (2,8,22,25,36)
· Tonic (2,8)
Whole Herb:
· Anodyne (4)
· Antinociceptive (20)
· Antispasmodic (4,8)
· Diaphoretic (2)
· Nervine (4)
· Sedative (4,8,20)
· Tonic (8)
Energetics
Flower Essence: Ghost Pipe flower essence supports the transitionary states of life. It assists one to manage the end of cycles in life, see the systems and cycles around one’s self, and come to terms with one’s own death. It allows one to see what lies beyond the surface of life and can be helpful in managing conflict and honoring one’s truth (37).
Homeopathy: Indicated for loss of connection, obstruction, breached boundaries, and parasites along with blockage manifesting as cramps, congestion, throbbing and jarring. There may also be sensations of being constricted, pressurized, and intense waves of pain. There may be feelings of having no boundaries between oneself and the world, feeling naked and exposed, cut off, numb, and isolated. These leaking boundaries and feelings of being take advantage of mirror the relationship that ghost pipe has as a parasitical plant that feeds off of the environment it grows in (21).
Therapeutic Uses and Specific Indications
Nervous System
The plant looks like a spine and brain stem suggesting it may be helpful for the nervous system. It has been used as a nervine in Western medicine since the 19th century (4). According to The King’s American Dispensatory (1898), the powdered root may be used as an alternative to opium to assist with pain, restlessness, and nervous irritability (2). However, a tincture of the whole plant has also been used in some cases to assist people with intense physical pain. It is believed to be antinociceptive in that it raises the threshold for pain, rather than making the pain go away. It seems to change the perspective the individual has on their experience of the pain preventing them from becoming overwhelmed by it (4,11). Ghost Pipe is recommended for individuals who are willing to bear witness and explore their pain and be an active participant in their own healing journey (4). It creates the experience of feeling more grounded and present in their bodies despite the intense pain (11).
Interestingly, Ghost Pipe tincture also shows promise at relieving emotional pain(4,11), including that caused by post-traumatic stress disorder or other traumatic injury (27). Anxiety brought on by acute sensory overload is managed effectively by Ghost Pipe by allowing the individual to separate themselves from the stimuli (11). In one case, an individual became paralyzed with pain due to horrible news received. Upon taking the Ghost Pipe tincture he was able to calm down and deal with the situation at hand (11). In another case, an individual suffering from erratic thoughts, insomnia, and paranoia received a tincture of Monotropa uniflora and Plectritis congesta (Sea Blush Roots) after which he calmed down, napped, and then subsequently resolved his personal challenges (17).
Anecdotal evidence also suggests that Monotropa uniflora can quickly and effectively calm someone down from a disturbing trip on psychedelics, such as DMT and LSD. By administering 1-3 mL of the tincture, pupil dilation and responses to external stimuli returned to normal within just a few minutes. After 15 minutes the individuals fell asleep and woke up hours later calm and coherent (11). This effect did not seem to apply in young men who were also taking stimulants prescribed for Attention Deficit Disorder(ADHD) at the same time of the psychotropic drugs (11,17).
Traditionally, the root was used as a sedative to treat convulsions, fits, and epilepsy, especially among children (8,9).
Integumentary
The juice was used as a topical remedy for inflamed eyes (9). In one reported case, men were hunting in the woods of New Jersey when they came across a large patch of Ghost Pipe. Given that the one man had a chronic issue of inflamed eye lids, they proceeded to gather the Ghost Pipe and apply it topically to his eyes. The inflammation was healed within four weeks and no further issues occurred afterwards (38). A tea was also made from equal parts of Ghost Pipe and fennel seed, then soaked on a cotton ball and applied to the eyes (8).
Musculoskeletal
In a case study by Dr. Drum, a male patient with an impact injury to the thigh causing pain, inflammation, bruising, and insomnia, received a tincture combining equal parts of Monotropa uniflora and Crataegus monogyna (Hawthorn Berry). It resolved the acute pain and insomnia within 36 hours. However, the tincture did not resolve the long-term aching sensation from the bruise bone (17).
Indications
· Overwhelming physical pain (4,11,16)
· Migraine headaches associated with traumatic brain injury (4,11)
· Anxiety and panic brought on by sensory overload (4,11)
· Overwhelming emotional memories (4,11)
· Unpleasant experiences with tryptamine-bearing psychotropic plants/drugs (11)
· Epilepsy (4,16)
· Ophthalmic inflammation, general inflammation, ulcers, and gonorrhoea (treated by the juice of the root) (21).
Contraindications
Not for pregnant or nursing women nor children (7). Caution is advised with larger doses and long-term use. There may be a potential contraindication with stimulant drugs prescribed for ADHD, but further investigation is required (17).
Pharmacy and Dosage
Root
Powdered: ½ to 1 drachm, 2 or 3 times a day (2).
Whole Plant
Tincture: 3 drops to 1ml of tincture every 5 minutes until the desired result is achieved (4,11).
Topically (Juice): Apply as needed
Synergism and Incompatibles
Monotropa uniflora tincture may be combined with cannabis tincture at a 50/50 ratio to help manage nerve pain from Lyme disease (11).
Combine Ghost Pipe with Wood Betony (Stachys betonica) and clematis for headaches caused by brain injury (11).
Combine with Anemone spp. (unless contraindicated by a forceful pulse and flushed complexion) to manage acute anxiety brought on by sensory overload (11). ‘
Ease intense emotions by combining with holy basil (4).
Ethnobotany and Folkloric Usage
Ghost Pipe is viewed as a healer of both physical and emotional wounds (39). It has been used by Indigenous communities of North America for its pain-relieving properties (4,11,16).
Ghost Pipe is viewed as a symbol of human greed and disagreement (39). The Cherokee legend of Ghost Pipe is that a long time ago selfishness entered the world and the people began quarreling. First, they argued about their families and then their tribes. The chiefs of several tribes met together to put an end to the arguments, but smoked a peace pipe before they resolved the quarrels amongst each other. As punishment for smoking the peace pipe before peace was achieved, the Great Spirit turned the chiefs into grey flowers and made them grow where their friends and relatives had argued (16,21,39).
The Straits-Salish and Nlaka’pamux peoples of BC viewed the presence of Ghost Pipe as an indicator of where wolves had urinated, but also an accurate predictor of where wood mushrooms would grow later in the season (9).
The Cherokee and the Blackfoot used Ghost Pipe as an anti-convulsant, by using the ground up roots during convulsions and seizure (15,40). The Cree Indians chewed on the flowers as a toothache remedy, the Mohegan Indians used it to relieve fevers and pain (40).
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